by Jia Lal Kilam

CHAPTER X
A Survey of Mogul Rule in Kashmir

THE Mogul rule was essentially a military despotism, but not of the variety one witnessed during the regime of the Delhi Sultans who had preceded the Moguls. The despotism of the Mogul rulers though military in character, was yet very benevolent. They did not remain content with only winning fresh territories or maintaining peace and tranquillity in the realm, but were always solicitous for the welfare of their subjects. Praises have been bestowed upon them for their achievements in the domain of architecture, painting and other fine arts. There are yet others who have admired their liberal out-look and the spirit of religious toleration. But it goes without saying that the greatest achievement of Mogul sovereigns has been to free the Government from the shackles of theocracy. It was they who took to kingship as a profession and never boasted of being the "Protectors of faithful" and so on. They introduced political ideas into their administration and evolved an administrative policy which was strictly political and secular and never theocratic or based upon religion. They remitted Jazia, the imposition of which was amongst other reasons based upon the fact "that since a non-Musiim cannot, in strict theory be allowed to fight on behalf of the Islamic State, he must pay for the support and upkeep of the army of the faithful who fight for the faith.'' The Jazia having been remitted, the Hindus in general and the Rajputs in particular were enlisted in the Imperial army, Even during Aurangzeb's reign Jai Singh was in command of the Emperor's Deccan armies. The strict interpretation of canonical doctrines did not in any way prevent the Emperor from following a policy which political considerations dictated. The removal of Jazia put both the Muslim and non-Muslims on par with each other. Hindus were made the grandees of the Empire. The part played by the Rajputs in consolidating the Empire is known to all. In Kashmir as has been noticed in the preceding pages, Pandits too were given commands in the army, though the Pandit's services were utilized for local purposes only.

The Empire was divided into a number of Subas (provinces). Kashmir was one such Suba. Each Suba was placed under a Subedar. The Subedar was the Head of the provincial administration and was responsible for the maintenance of law and order, He was assisted by a Diwan, in charge of financial matters, and a Faujdar. In Kashmir there used to be a Faujdar at Anantnag, then known as Islamabad.

From ancient Hindu times Kashmir was divided into a number of Parganas (sub-districts) traditionally thirty-six which served as administrative units. Each Pargana was administered by a Parganadar under whom were other petty officers such as Patwaris, Thanedars, Shikdars, Qanungo, Fotedars etc. A Parganadar and his local beareaucracy was responsible for land revenue collections. Land revenue was collected in kind. To begin with the land revenue was fixed at about twenty two lacs of Khirwars of Shali. Later on the produce of the whole country according to Ami Akbari was estimated at sixty-one lacs of Khirwars of Shali, and the land revenue was fixed at one half of the produce. Says Aini Akbari "the system of revenue collection is by appraisement and division of crops. Although one third had been for a long time past the nominal share of the State, more than two shares were actually taken, but through His Majesty's justice it has been reduced to one half. According to the assessment of Qazi Ali the land revenue was fixed at 3073050 kharwars of Shali." In dams the land revenue came to 74670000 dams, which would mean that the price of one khirwar of Shali was about 24 dams, i. e. ten annas. In Shah Jehan's reign the total revenue (including other taxes and duties) was estimated at Rs. 3750000 and on the death of Aurangzeb it was Rs. 5747734, though previous to this the revenue had shown some decrease.

Agriculture was very well looked after and many improvements were effected in its methods. Irrigation was a special concern of the State. The Karewas or tablelands in which Kashmir abounds, were most of them irrigated and much ingenuity was displayed by their engmeers in carrying water to the top of these hillocks. No wonder that the produce of Shali and other foodgrains was very rich and abundant. Fruit growing was practised on an extensive scale. The methods of grafting was introduced in Kashmir during this period. Many central Asian fruits were thus introduced in the country; and many gardens were laid in Kashmir during this period. Wherever one may go in Kashmir a Mogul garden in ruins will be there with a grove of chinars to proclaim in mute eloquence the glory of the place once. The Subedars while following the footsteps of the Emperors vied with each other in laying gardens. During this period seven hundred gardens are estimated to have been laid. The Chinar tree is believed to have been imported during this period.

Akbar selected the site for laying the seat of Government on lands round about the hill of Hari Parbat. A fort was constructed around the hill and a town was founded there which was named as Nagar Nagar. The fort itself was named as Nagar Nagar fort. In constructing the fort a crore and ten lacs of rupees were provided from the royal treasury and besides two hundred master-builders were sent from India. The construction greatly relieved the horrors of a famine which had broken out during those days. The Subedars had their residence inside the fort. The fort had twelve big gates besides a number of small entrances - the latter led to the gardens laid by various Mogul Subedars. The palaces where the Subedars lived were constructed inside the fort on the northern and the eastern side of the hill. Jehangir himself raised a magnificent palace on the eastern side. So also Ali Mardan Khan a Subedar (1650 A. D. to 1657 A. D.) to its north. Other Subedars raised similar palaces. There was a stream which flowed near the palaces. This was known as Lachhmi Kuhl. This stream catered to the needs of the people who attended Jama Masjid for prayers. On the southern side of the fort there was a gate known then as Delhi Darwaza which exists even now; and is nowknown to the people as Kathi Darwaza. The Naubat Shahi was located there. The jail was just near it at a place where the present jail is situated. The reason why the gate is now known as Kathi Darwaza is perhaps that the condemned people were hanged there - the word in Kashmir for a scaffold being Kathi.

Moguls in spite of their depotism were not unmindful of public opinion. Various were the methods adopted by them to keep public opinion on their side, one such method was not to allow anybody to go to bed with an empty stomach. Poor houses were started under royal patronage which fed the poor and infirm sections of the people. In Srinagar there was one such poor house located in a building known as Bilor Khana which was constructed just near the royal palaces on the bank of Sudrabal lake. Food was distributed free both morning and evening to anybody who felt its need. On the western side of the fort there was another gate which led to Idgah. At Idgah there stood a mosque and a Chinar grove. In Idgah on the Id day after Nimaz the Subedar anl other Mansabdars participated in a number of games. Horse races and peg driving were practised. Thousands of people enjoyed sight-seeing and really enjoyed Id.

The Subedars and other Mansabdars had quite a jolly time and the people also were happy and peaceful. For the Subedars and other big people drinking water was brought from Gagribal. The sluice at Drugjan was just at the place as it is now.

Kashmir carried a brisk trade with Central Asia and India. It was the centre wherefrom articles of Indian manufacture such as muslins, brocade etc. were transported to Central Asia and China and Central Asian manufactured articles were sent to India. In fact it was a meeting place for traders, from such distant places as Balkh and Bukhara in the north and Delhi and Amritsar from the south. The revenue from customs was estimated at two lacs of rupees, which taking into consideration the fall in the value of the rupee since Mogul times is much more than is the income even at present. Anantnag was the place wherefrom trade was directed with India and Jammu, Bhadrawah, Kishtwar etc. The habit of taking tea which is now universal in Kashmir was imbibed during this period following contacts with Tibetian traders who had themselves taken it up from Chinese.

Many industries flourished in Kashmir during this period, chief of them being carpet and shawl industries. Silkworm was reared and the silk industry was very flourishing. Besides that there were other industries such as paper machie, silver work, copper work, wood work furs, leather work and paper manufacturing. About paper it is recorded that Kashmir did " fabricate the best writing paper of the East which was formerly an article of extensive traffic, as were its lacquer ware, cutlery and sugars." The shawl industry was at its peak during this period. There were about forty thousand shawl looms working in the country during this period. Shawls found their way in all parts of the world. Merchants and commercial agents from all over Asia were stationed here. The art of shawl making was highly developed and a shawl could very easily pass through a ring. It is recorded that a Sayyid who had come to Kashmir in 1796 A. D. carried with himself a shawl given to him as a gift which he later presented to Khedive of Egypt, who on his part presented it to Napoleon. Napoleon handed it over to his wife Josephine, who later introduced it in fashionable Paris societies. Gradually Kashmir shawl secured quite a good market in France, and which continued right up to the day the French were defeated in Franco-German war of 1870 A. D. The collapse of France contributed in a very large extent to the collapse of the industry in Kashmir.

During the Mogul period in Kashmir the shawl weavers do not seem to have been reckoned as a respectable class. May be that they were quite an exploited class. In any case their lot was very far from being enviable. Many pithy sayings concerning them are current even now, and these would describe their plight in an unmistakable manner. Even now whenever circumstances urge somebody. to use an inferior stuff, where a better stuff should have been used, the man on inquiry would without a moment's thought retort with an old saying: " Sin muhima sochal raian muhima Khandawav" which rendered in English would mean " Famine of vegetables will force you to eat Sauchal (a wild grown vegetable) and dearth of good husbands will compel a woman to choose a shawl weaver." Compared to modern conditions there were too many working hours a day with no respite as becomes clear from many other sayings yet in vogue. But this too is a fact that they eked out a secure living from their profession and never starved, though they seldom were in opulent circumstances.

There was not the baffling problem of unemployment of the present day. The fact that about forty thousand shawl looms were working in the country, would show that besides the forty thousand workers on the looms twice the number must have been dependent on this industry alone. These would include spinners, darners, washers, embroiderers, dyers etc. besides the rich shawl magnates and their staff and servants. The unemployment, in towns it can be easily imagined must have been almost non-existent. The people with even small incomes could have kept starvation at an arm's length. The produce of food grains had gone very high, in as much the price of a. Khirwar (two maunds) of Shali was only ten annas, which on account of further increase in the production during Shah Jehan's reign must have gone further down. But this would not lead one to the conclusion that the peasantry was a hard-hit lot. In the first instance the abundance of food produce must naturally have kept them free from its want. Besides this it has to be borne in mind that the value of money at that time was nearly thirteen times as much as it was at the beginning of the second world war, and the value of the rupee at the beginning of the second world war was four times as it is today. Even though a Khirwar of Shali fetched in those days only eight annas, that would mean in our currency thirty two rupees and eight annas. This compares very favourably with the present day prices. Besides this, the village population as elsewhere in India, had a complete village economy. They had their own carpenter, barber, iron smith, physician, washerman and weaver. These were paid in kind at each harvest in lieu of the services they rendered during the year. Fruit was abundant, which on account of its perishable nature, and want of speedy means of transport was not exported in any large quantities. Unlike these days, fruit was very cheap and people used it as an article of food.

The shawl factories were working at two places near Jama Masjid and Buchhwara at the foot of the Shankaracharya hill. The weavers also had establised their residential colonies at these two places. It is believed that the waters of Dal lake have some special properties needed for washing the yarn and it is therefore that Buchhwara was chosen for starting factories. Paper manufactories existed at Vicharnag, but the finishing touches were given at Harwan. Namda making was yet another industry. The dealers had established themselves at Baldimar in Srinagar, and did quite a brisk business. It is not possible to know the exact amount of wages drawn by a worker at a factory. In any case it could in no way be less than that of a peon - the lowest in rung in official hierarchy - who was paid those days Rs. 3/8/- a month in India. Judging from the fall in the value of currency, a person with an income of 3/8/- a month then is as good as a person of these days with a monthly income of Rs. 150/-. All this might seem a fiction, but it is strange that all this is a fact.

The State too made a huge income from this all round prosperity At the close of Akbar's rule the land revenue of the valley was a little more than 24 lacs of rupees. By the end of Aurangzeb's rule, the land revenue may have gone up by an other six lacs. The all told income, including taxes, customs and excise duties was about 57 lacs of rupees during Aurangzeb's rule, which while deducting the land revenue would leave a balance of about 27 lacs from other sources. The figure of 57 lacs would indeed become a staggering figure if converted into modern currency. No wonder then that the Moguls in Kashmir became responsible for a number of beneficent projects, such as road-building schemes, irrigation schemes, laying of gardens, fruit improvement schemes and so on.

For a period of ane hundred fifty years, Kashmir witnessed an era of unprecedented peace. Trade and commerce too were in a flourshing condition. Majlis Rai, to whom reference has been made earlier hailed from Jullundar Duabal and is said to have owned a crore of rupees worth property in cash and kind. He did extensive money lending business and when he fell he had an outstanding of twenty four lacs. He is said to have charged an interest of eight annas per cent. There were other Khatri traders who were equally rich. The lot of the Kashmiri Pandits could in no way be described as unhappy. They had quite a good say in the affairs of administration and their causes were decided by Hindu Judges according to Shastras - one such Judge being Srikantha - a Kashmiri Pandit, who on account of his learning was appointed by Jehangir. Deeds were generally written in Sanskrit - not the polished language of scholars, but in a dialect which was an admixture of Sanskrit and Persian. There was a fair measure of religious toleration. Even Aurangzeb granted some lands to the Pandas of Martand Tirtha (Mattan) under his royal seal. The Pandas of Mattan have preserved this Sanad. There were many religious festivals celebrated then by the Pandits which have now fallen in disuse. And so were many Tirthas which the Hindus visited year after year. Some of them are not even known now.

But from this it should not be supposed that there was not a single Subedar who misbehaved at times. Such instances of misbehaviour are many. But the moment information reached the Ruler at Delhi, prompt measures were adopted to set the matter right. The Pandits made a complaint to Jehangir against Qilich Khan - a Subedar during his reign. Jehangir at once wrote to the Subedar. "Supporter of Government. Thy complainants are many and thanks-givers few. Pour cold water on thirsty people or else relinquish thy post."